Erik Skare

1. The Solution Is Islam

  1. Quoted in Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of the Muslim Brothers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), 224.
  2. Brynjar Lia, The Society of the Muslim Brothers in Egypt: The Rise of an Islamic Mass Movement (Reading: Ithaca Press, 1998), 1.
  3. Steven Brooke and Neil Ketchley, 'Social and Institutional Origins of Political Islam', American Political Science Review 112, no. 2 (May 2018): 379.
  4. Though Egypt gained trappings of formal independence, the British retained rights to protect their interests, greatly restricting sovereignty. M. W. Daly, 'The British Occupation, 1882–1922', in M. W. Daly, ed., The Cambridge History of Egypt, vol. 2, Modern Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 250.
  5. Mitchell, The Society of the Muslim Brothers, 7.
  6. There are disagreements about the early Brotherhood's anticolonial stance, as it received Suez Canal Company funding in 1931. See Lia, Society of the Muslim Brothers in Egypt, 41.
  7. Wickham, The Muslim Brotherhood, 22.
  8. Lia, Society of the Muslim Brothers in Egypt, 83.
  9. Wickham, The Muslim Brotherhood, 23.
  10. Quoted in Mitchell, The Society of the Muslim Brothers, 232–33.
  11. Lia, Society of the Muslim Brothers in Egypt, 37.
  12. Neil Ketchley, Steven Brooke, and Brynjar Lia, 'Who Supported the Early Muslim Brotherhood?', Politics and Religion 15, no. 2 (June 2022): 388–416.
  13. Brooke and Ketchley, 'Social and Institutional Origins of Political Islam', 380.
  14. Israel Gershoni, 'The Muslim Brothers and the Arab Revolt in Palestine, 1936–39', Middle Eastern Studies 22, no. 3 (1986): 369; Lia, Society of the Muslim Brothers in Egypt, 155–6.
  15. Benny Morris, 'Revisiting the Palestinian Exodus of 1948', in Eugene L. Rogan and Avi Shlaim, eds, The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 39.
  16. Britannica, 'The Arab Revolt', last updated August 20, 2024, britannica.com.
  17. Ilan Pappé, A History of Modern Palestine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 106.
  18. Gershoni, 'The Muslim Brothers', 371.
  19. Khaled Hroub, Hamas: Political Thought and Practice (Washington, DC: Institute for Palestine Studies, 2000), 12–13.
  20. Ibid., 15; Jean-­Pierre Filiu, 'The Origins of Hamas: Militant Legacy or Israeli Tool?', Journal of Palestine Studies 41, no. 3 (June 2012): 56; Mohammed K. Shadid, 'The Muslim Brotherhood Movement in the West Bank and Gaza', Third World Quarterly 10, no. 2 (April 1988): 659.
  21. See Hroub, Hamas, 15; Lia, Society of the Muslim Brothers in Egypt, 155.
  22. Hroub, Hamas, 17; Shaul Mishal and Avraham Sela, The Palestinian Hamas: Vision, Violence, and Coexistence (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 16.
  23. Ismail Abdel Aziz Khalidi, '60 'aman fi jama'at al-­Ikhwan al-­Muslimin', 2010.
  24. Beverley Milton-­Edwards and Stephen Farrell, Hamas: The Islamic Resistance Movement (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2010), 33; Ziad Abu-­Amr, 'Hamas: A Historical and Political Background', Journal of Palestine Studies 22, no. 4 (1993): 6.
  25. Milton-­Edwards and Farrell, Hamas, 32; Filiu, 'The Origins of Hamas', 57.
  26. Abu-­Amr, 'Hamas', 7.
  27. Beverley Milton-­Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine (London: I. B. Tauris, 1999), 34.
  28. Filiu, 'The Origins of Hamas', 57.
  29. See, for example, Jacob Norris, 'Repression and Rebellion: Britain's Response to the Arab Revolt in Palestine of 1936–39', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 36, no. 1 (March 2008): 25–45.
  30. Rashid Khalidi, 'The Palestinians and 1948: The Underlying Causes of Failure', in Rogan and Shlaim, The War for Palestine, 26–7.
  31. Ibid., 28.
  32. Pappé, A History of Modern Palestine, 121.
  33. Jean-­Pierre Filiu, Gaza: A History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 59.
  34. Baruch Kimmerling and Joel S. Migdal, The Palestinian People: A History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 146–7.
  35. Wickham, The Muslim Brotherhood, 26; Filiu, Gaza, 59.
  36. Mishal and Sela, The Palestinian Hamas, 16.
  37. Milton-­Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine, 34; Filiu, 'The Origins of Hamas', 57.
  38. Rashid Khalidi, 'The Palestinians and 1948', 13.
  39. Pappé, A History of Modern Palestine, 137.
  40. Ilan Pappé, The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine (London: Oneworld, 2006), 15; Ilan Pappé, The Biggest Prison on Earth: A History of the Occupied Territories (London: Oneworld, 2017), 9.
  41. Pappé, A History of Modern Palestine, 138.
  42. Filiu, Gaza, 69–70; Beryl Cheal, 'Refugees in the Gaza Strip, December 1948–May 1950', Journal of Palestine Studies 18, no. 1 (1988): 139.
  43. Filiu, Gaza, 70–1.
  44. Sara Roy, 'Civil Society in the Gaza Strip: Obstacles to Social Reconstruction', in August Richard Norton, ed., Civil Society in the Middle East, vol. 2 (Leiden: Brill 1995), 227.
  45. Ibid., 227.
  46. Wickham, The Muslim Brotherhood, 26.
  47. Avraham Sela, 'The West Bank under Jordan', in P. R. Kumaraswamy, ed., The Palgrave Handbook of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 287.
  48. Ibid., 279, 283.
  49. Roy, 'Civil Society in the Gaza Strip', 226.
  50. Milton-­Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine, 60.
  51. Shadid, 'The Muslim Brotherhood Movement', 661–2.
  52. Ziad Abu-­Amr, Islamic Fundamentalism in the West Bank and Gaza (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 4; Hroub, Hamas, 19–20.
  53. Azzam Tamimi, Hamas: Unwritten Chapters (London: Hurst, 2009), 20; Shadid, 'The Muslim Brotherhood Movement', 661.
  54. Milton-­Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine, 61.
  55. Sara Roy, Hamas and Civil Society in Gaza: Engaging the Islamist Social Sector (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), 21.
  56. Ismail Abdel Aziz Khalidi, '60 'aman fi jama'at al-­Ikhwan al-­Muslimin', 2010.
  57. Hroub, Hamas, 23.
  58. Roy, Hamas and Civil Society in Gaza, 21.
  59. For the authoritative account on the Muslim Brotherhood and state repression in Egypt, see Abou El Zalaf, The Muslim Brotherhood and State Repression in Egypt: A History of Secrecy and Militancy in an Islamist Organization (London: I. B. Tauris, 2024).
  60. Filiu, 'The Origins of Hamas', 60.
  61. Ismail Abdel Aziz Khalidi, '60 'aman fi jama'at al-­Ikhwan al-­Muslimin', 2010.
  62. Abu-­Amr, Islamic Fundamentalism, 9; Milton-­Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine, 54
  63. Cleveland and Bunton, A History of the Modern Middle East, 312–13.
  64. Milton-­Edwards and Farrell, Hamas, 36.
  65. Shaker al-­Jawhari, Musa Abu Marzuq: Mishwar hayat: Dhikriyat al-­luju' wa-­l-­ghurba wa sanawat al-­nidal (Beirut: Markaz al-­zaytuna li-­l-­dirasat wa-­l-­istisharat, 2019), 72; Erik Skare, A History of Palestinian Islamic Jihad: Faith, Awareness, and Revolution in the Middle East (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 15; Milton-­Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine.
  66. Milton-­Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine, 53–4.
  67. Yezid Sayigh, Armed Struggle and the Search for State: The Palestinian National Movement, 1949–1993 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 81–2.
  68. Hroub, Hamas, 26.
  69. Ismail Abdel Aziz Khalidi, '60 'aman fi jama'at al-­Ikhwan al-­Muslimin', 2010.
  70. Milton-Edwards and Farrell, Hamas, 35.
  71. Hroub, Hamas, 24.
  72. Filiu, 'The Origins of Hamas', 60.
  73. Muhammad Abu Tayr, Sayyidi Umar: Dhikriyat al-­shaykh Muhammad Abu Tayr fi al-­muqawama wa thalatha wa thalathin 'aman min al-­i'tiqal (Beirut: Markaz al-­Zaytuna li-­l-­Dirisat wa-­l-­Istisharat, 2017), 79.
  74. Al-­Maqadma, Ma'alim fi al-­tariq li-­tahrir Filastin, 42.
  75. Ismail Abdel Aziz Khalidi, '60 'aman fi jama'at al-­Ikhwan al-­Muslimin', 2010.
  76. Ibid.
  77. Ibid.
  78. Ibid.
  79. Milton-­Edwards and Farrell, Hamas, 37.
  80. Roy, Hamas and Civil Society in Gaza, 21.
  81. Sara Roy, The Gaza Strip: The Political Development of De-­development (Washington, DC: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1995), 104; Milton-­Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine, 75.
  82. Roy, The Gaza Strip, 104.
  83. Sayigh, Armed Struggle and the Search for State, 203, 287.
  84. Milton-­Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine, 75.
  85. Filiu, 'The Origins of Hamas', 63.
  86. Avi (Avraham) Sasson, 'Historical Geography of the Palestine Southern Coastal Plain in the Late Ottoman Period – the Ashkelon Region as a Case Study', Middle Eastern Studies 55, no. 6 (November 2019): 980.
  87. 'al-­Shaykh Ahmad Yasin: shahid ala asr al-­intifada', episode 1, al-­Jazeera, April 17, 1999.
  88. Zochrot, 'al-­Jura (Gaza)', zochrot.org; Sasson, 'Historical Geography of the Palestine Southern Coastal Plain', 980–1.
  89. Zochrot, 'al-­Jura (Gaza)'.
  90. Michael Press, 'Hussein's Head and Importance of Cultural Heritage', Ancient Near East Today 11, no. 3 (2014).
  91. Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 517.
  92. Atif Adwan, al-­Shaykh Ahmad Yassin: Hayatuhu wa jihaduhu (n.p.: al-­Markaz al-­Filastini li-­l-­i'lam, 1991), 18–19.
  93. 'al-­Shaykh Ahmad Yasin'.
  94. Milton-­Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine, 100–1.
  95. Adwan, al-­Shaykh Ahmad Yassin, 61.
  96. Yahya Sinwar, al-­Shawk wa-­l-­qaranful (n.p., 2004), 92.
  97. Tamimi, Hamas, 21.
  98. Abdel Aziz al-­Rantisi, Mudhakirat al-­shahid al-­duktur Abd al-­Aziz al-­Rantisi (Cairo: Dar al-­tawzi' wa-­l-­nashr al-­Islamiyya, 2004), 30.
  99. Al-­Jawhari, Musa Abu Marzuq, 57–8.
  100. Al-­Rantisi, Mudhakirat al-­shahid al-­duktur Abd al-­Aziz al-­Rantisi, 30–1.
  101. Sayigh, Armed Struggle and the Search for State, 65; Rashid Khalidi, The Hundred Years' War on Palestine: A History of Settler Colonialism and Resistance, 1917–2017 (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2020), 94; see also bullet point 23 in UNRWA Commissioner-­General, Special Report of the Director of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees (New York: United Nations, 1955); for a historical account of 1956, see Joe Sacco, Footnotes in Gaza (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2009).
  102. Al-­Jawhari, Musa Abu Marzuq, 54.
  103. Quoted in Sacco, Footnotes in Gaza, ix.
  104. Al-­Rantisi, Mudhakirat al-­shahid al-­duktur Abd al-­Aziz al-­Rantisi, 29.
  105. Adwan, al-­Shaykh Ahmad Yassin, 37, 40.
  106. Abdel Aziz Khalidi, '60 'aman fi jama'at al-­Ikhwan al-­Muslimin', 2010.
  107. Adwan, al-­Shaykh Ahmad Yassin, 54.
  108. Ibid., 55–6.
  109. Milton-­Edwards and Farrell, Hamas, 39–40.
  110. Abu Tayr, Sayyidi Umar, 164.
  111. 'al-­Shaykh Ahmad Yasin: Shahid ala asr al-­intifada', episode 3, al-­ Jazeera, May 1, 1999.
  112. Filiu, 'The Origins of Hamas', 62, 64.
  113. Yezid Sayigh, 'Turning Defeat into Opportunity: The Palestinian Guerrillas after the June 1967 War', Middle East Journal 46, no. 2 (1992): 251.
  114. Filiu, 'The Origins of Hamas', 64; Hroub, Hamas, 29.
  115. Hroub, Hamas, 31; Abu-­Amr, Islamic Fundamentalism, 15.
  116. Adwan, al-­Shaykh Ahmad Yassin, 62–3.
  117. Roy, Hamas and Civil Society in Gaza, 72–3, 75.
  118. Mishal and Sela, The Palestinian Hamas, 19.
  119. Roy, Hamas and Civil Society in Gaza, 73.
  120. Sayigh, Armed Struggle and the Search for State, 280.
  121. Ibid., 273, 282.
  122. Milton-­Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine, 104.
  123. Milton-­Edwards and Farrell, Hamas, 44.
  124. Shadid, 'The Muslim Brotherhood Movement', 674; Abdel Aziz Khalidi, '60 'aman fi jama'at al-­Ikhwan al-­Muslimin'.
  125. Roy, Hamas and Civil Society in Gaza, 74.
  126. Milton-­Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine, 111.
  127. Shadid, 'The Muslim Brotherhood Movement', 674.
  128. Mishal and Sela, The Palestinian Hamas, 23.
  129. Milton-­Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine, 106.
  130. Filiu, 'The Origins of Hamas', 65.
  131. Ibid.
  132. Mishal and Sela, The Palestinian Hamas, 23.
  133. Michael Irving Jensen, '"Re-­Islamising" Palestinian Society "from Below": Hamas and Higher Education in Gaza', Holy Land Studies 5, no. 1 (2006): 60.
  134. Mishal and Sela, The Palestinian Hamas, 23–4.
  135. Filiu, 'The Origins of Hamas', 65.
  136. Milton-­Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine, 111.
  137. Jensen, '"Re-­Islamising" Palestinian Society "from Below" ', 63.
  138. Abdel Aziz Khalidi, '60 'aman fi jama'at al-­Ikhwan al-­Muslimin'.
  139. See James Davison Hunter, Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America (New York: Basic Books, 1991).
  140. Roy, Hamas and Civil Society in Gaza, 75.