Erik Skare

5. Guns and Governance

  1. Quoted in Robert J. Brym and Bader Araj, 'Suicide Bombing as Strategy and Interaction: The Case of the Second Intifada', Social Forces 84, no. 4 (June 2006): 1980.
  2. Oren Barak, 'The Failure of the Israeli-­Palestinian Peace Process, 1993–2000, Journal of Peace Research 42, no. 6 (2005): 728.
  3. Avi Shlaim, 'Reflections on the Israeli–Palestinian Conflict', Asian Affairs 42, no. 1 (March 2011): 9.
  4. Oren Barak, 'The Failure of the Israeli–Palestinian Peace Process', 730.
  5. Sara Roy, 'Why Peace Failed: An Oslo Autopsy', Current History 101, no. 651 (January 2002): 9; Jeremy Pressman, 'The Second Intifada: Background and Causes of the Israeli-­Palestinian Conflict', Journal of Conflict Studies 23, no. 2 (2003): 121.
  6. Ibid., 120.
  7. Roy, 'Why Peace Failed', 9, 12–13.
  8. Avi Shlaim, 'Peace Confounded', Index on Censorship 30, no. 1 (January 2001): 53.
  9. Pressman, 'The Second Intifada', 114.
  10. Ibid., 130–1.
  11. Baruch Kimmerling and Joel S. Migdal, The Palestinian People: A History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 359.
  12. Beverley Milton-­Edwards and Stephen Farrell, Hamas: The Islamic Resistance Movement (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2010), 104–5.
  13. Badran, Katibat al-­Shimal, 17.
  14. Jamil Hilal, 'Hamas's Rise as Charted in the Polls, 1994–2005', Journal of Palestine Studies 35, no. 3 (April 2006): 7.
  15. David A. Jaeger et al., 'Can Militants Use Violence to Win Public Support? Evidence from the Second Intifada', Journal of Conflict Resolution 59, no. 3 (April 2015): 532.
  16. Nasser Abufarha, The Making of a Human Bomb: An Ethnography of Palestinian Resistance (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009), 82.
  17. Ibid., 114; Joe Stork, Erased in a Moment: Suicide Bombing Attacks against Israeli Civilians (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2002), 112.
  18. Bilal Shalash, 'Tahawwulat al-­muqawama al-­musallaha li-­harakat Hamas fi al-­diffa al-­gharbiyya athna' intifadat al-­aqsa min al-­markaziyya ila al-­shazaya al-­mutafajjara', in Qadiyat Filastin wa mustaqbal al-­mashru' al-­watani al-­Filastini ­al-­juz' al-­awwal: Fi al-­hawiya wa-­l-­muqawama wa-­l-­qanun al-­duwwali (Doha: Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies, 2015), 418.
  19. Erik Skare, A History of Palestinian Islamic Jihad: Faith, Awareness, and Revolution in the Middle East (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 176.
  20. See appendix for a discussion of the fatality bias in the dataset, as the data only account for those who died. Actual recruitment numbers were presumably higher, although the shift in recruitment numbers from the late 1990s to the early 2000s is reliably depicted.
  21. Badran, Katibat al-­shimal, 90.
  22. Ramadan Shallah, Haqa'iq wa mawafiq (Damascus: Mu'assasat al-­Aqsa al-­Thaqafiyya, 2007), 21.
  23. Antonella Acinapura, 'A Framing-­Sensitive Approach to Militant Groups' Tactics: The Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine and the Radicalisation of Violence during the Second Intifada', Critical Studies on Terrorism 16, no. 1 (January 2023): 136.
  24. Badran, Katibat al-­shimal, 42.
  25. Erik Skare, 'Affluent and Well-­Educated? Analyzing the Socioeconomic Backgrounds of Fallen Palestinian Islamist Militants', Middle East Journal 76, no. 1 (May 2022): 89.
  26. Skare, A History of Palestinian Islamic Jihad, 80–1.
  27. Assaf Moghadam, 'Palestinian Suicide Terrorism in the Second Intifada: Motivations and Organizational Aspects', Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 26, no. 2 (March 2003): 78.
  28. Nada Matta and René Rojas, 'The Second Intifada: A Dual Strategy Arena', European Journal of Sociology 57, no. 1 (April 2016): 79.
  29. Bader Araj and Robert J. Brym, 'Opportunity, Culture and Agency: Influences on Fatah and Hamas Strategic Action during the Second Intifada', International Sociology 25, no. 6 (November 2010): 851.
  30. The statistics are from PIJ's 'Jadwal tafsili bi-­amaliyyat harakat al-­jihad al-­islami mundhu nasha'tha hatta (2006/2)'. Document in author's possession.
  31. Thabit Mardawi, Namut fi al-­watan. Wa lan nughadir: Malhamat Jinin bi-­shahadat al-­asir al-­mujahid Thabit Mardawi (Gaza: al-­Markaz al-­Filastini li-­l-­Tawasul al-­Hadari, 2006), 40.
  32. See for example al-­Quds Brigades, 'Khabar: Butulat ramadaniyya. "Mustafa Abu Sariyya" wa "Abd al-­Karim Na'isa". abtal al-­hujum al-­naw'iyya al-­mazduj ala madinat al-­Afula', al-­Quds Brigades, August 22, 2010, saraya.ps; al-­Quds Brigades, 'al-­Shahid al-­qa'id Umar al-­Khatib', al-­Quds Brigades, n.d., saraya.ps.
  33. Khaled Hroub, Hamas: Political Thought and Practice (Washington DC: Institute for Palestine Studies, 2000), 82.
  34. Quoted in Jeroen Gunning, 'Peace with Hamas? The Transforming Potential of Political Participation', International Affairs 80, no. 2 (March 2004): 250.
  35. 'Salah Shahada. Harakat Hamas shahada tarikhiyya', al-­Jazeera.
  36. Matta and Rojas, 'The Second Intifada', 79.
  37. Jeroen Gunning, Hamas in Politics: Democracy, Religion, Violence (London: Hurst, 2009), 202–3.
  38. Daniel Byman, 'Curious Victory: Explaining Israel's Suppression of the Second Intifada', Terrorism and Political Violence 24, no. 5 (November 2012): 829.
  39. Avi Kober, 'Targeted Killing during the Second Intifada: The Quest for Effectiveness', Journal of Conflict Studies 27, no. 1 (2007): 79.
  40. 'Wounded Hamas Leader Vows to Fight Israel', Sydney Morning Herald, June 11, 2003.
  41. Giora Eiland, 'The IDF in the Second Intifada', Strategic Assessment 13, no. 3 (2010): 30.
  42. Brian Whitaker, 'Sharon Likens Arafat to Bin Laden', Guardian, September 14, 2001.
  43. 'Sharon: "We Can Defeat Forces of Evil" ', CNN, September 12, 2001.
  44. Beverley Milton-­Edwards, 'Islamist versus Islamist: Rising Challenge in Gaza', Terrorism and Political Violence 26, no. 2 (2014): 262; Ghassan Charbel, 'Ziyara li-­dhakirat al-­amin al-­amm li-­harakat al-­jihad al-­islami fi Filastin 3. Shallah: lam yu'ayyid qatal al-­madaniyyin fi 11 aylul wa sha'artu bi-­shamata wa-­l-­shafqa qara' al-­Zawahiri hadithi an al-­yahud fi al-­wasat fa ba'ath ilayy bi-­risala itab', al-­Hayat, January 9, 2003.
  45. Abdallah al-­Shami, 'Falsafat al-­Shahada', Muhjat al-­Quds, 2000.
  46. Charbel, 'Shallah: Lam yu'ayyid qatl al-­madaniyyin fi 11 aylul'.
  47. Thabit Mardawi, Namut fi al-­watan, 144.
  48. Yusuf Arif al-­Hajj Muhammad, al-­Masira al-­jihadiyya li-­harakat al-­jihad al-­islami fi Filastin (Gaza: Muhjat al-­Quds, 2011), 81–2.
  49. Eiland, 'The IDF in the Second Intifada', 30.
  50. Kober, 'Targeted Killing during the Second Intifada', 79.
  51. See, for example, Skare, Palestinian Islamic Jihad, 31–3; Hamas has also used the term 'artificial entity' as late as in 2023. See 'Mi'at al-­Shuhada' bi-­Ghazza wa-­l-­Qassam tastahdif Tall Abib wa tahbatt muhawalat isti'adat jundi Isra'ili', al-­Jazeera, December 8, 2023.
  52. Brym and Araj, 'Suicide Bombing as Strategy and Interaction', 1981.
  53. Matta and Rojas, 'The Second Intifada', 97.
  54. Skare, A History of Palestinian Islamic Jihad, 174.
  55. Badran, Katibat al-­shimal, 42–3.
  56. Eiland, 'The IDF in the Second Intifada', 29; Matta and Rojas, 'The Second Intifada', 84.
  57. B'Tselem, Operation Defensive Shield: Soldiers' Testimonies. Palestinian Testimonies (Jerusalem: B'Tselem, 2002), 3.
  58. Beverley Milton-­Edwards and Alistair Crooke, 'Elusive Ingredient: Hamas and the Peace Process', Journal of Palestine Studies 33, no. 4 (July 2004): 303.
  59. Matta and Rojas, 'The Second Intifada', 102.
  60. Muhammad, al-­Masira al-­jihadiyya, 91.
  61. The term Murabit does not have a direct equivalent in English. Historically, the Murabitun were soldiers serving at the frontier fortifications of the Islamic community.
  62. Yezid Sayigh, 'We Serve the People': Hamas Policing in Gaza (Washington, DC: Brandeis University, Crown Center for Middle East Studies, 2011), 46.
  63. Matta and Rojas, 'The Second Intifada', 102.
  64. Badran, Katibat al-­shimal, 92.
  65. Shallah, Haqa'iq wa mawafiq, 41. Correct page number is 40.
  66. 'Abbas Vows to Protect West Bank from Hamas', ABC News, June 20, 2007.
  67. Muhammad Abu Tayr, Sayyidi Umar: Dhikriyat al-­shaykh Muhammad Abu Tayr fi al-­muqawama wa thalatha wa thalathin 'aman min al-­i'tiqal (Beirut: Markaz al-­zaytuna li-­l-­dirasat wa-­l-­istisharat, 2017), 363.
  68. Shallah, Haqa'iq wa mawafiq, 45.
  69. See, for example, Bruce Hoffman, 'Understanding Hamas's Genocidal Ideology', Atlantic, October 10, 2023; American Jewish Committee, 'What Hamas Is Hiding', Global Voice, October 7, 2023, ajc.org; Menachem Z. Rosensaft, 'Hamas Terrorists Have Genocide in Their Hearts. They Say So Themselves', Newsweek, October 12, 2023.
  70. Hroub, Hamas: Political Thought and Practice, 49.
  71. Khaled Hroub, Hamas: A Beginner's Guide (London: Pluto Press, 2006), 24, 36.
  72. Hroub, Hamas: Political Thought and Practice, 44.
  73. Sara Roy, Hamas and Civil Society in Gaza: Engaging the Islamist Social Sector (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), 85–7.
  74. Gunning, Hamas in Politics, 39.
  75. Hroub, Hamas, 50–1.
  76. Ibid., 64–5.
  77. Kimmerling and Migdal, The Palestinian People, 369.
  78. Wendy Kristianasen, 'Challenge and Counterchallenge: Hamas's Response to Oslo', Journal of Palestine Studies 28, no. 3 (1999): 23.
  79. Quoted in Hroub, Hamas, 65.
  80. Skare, A History of Palestinian Islamic Jihad, 121.
  81. Kristianasen, 'Challenge and Counterchallenge', 22–3.
  82. Beverley Milton-­Edwards, 'Prepared for Power: Hamas, Governance and Conflict', Civil Wars 7, no. 4 (December 2005): 313.
  83. Shaul Mishal and Avraham Sela, The Palestinian Hamas: Vision, Violence, and Coexistence (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 15–16.
  84. Azzam Tamimi, Hamas: Unwritten Chapters (London: Hurst, 2009), 211.
  85. Tareq Baconi, Hamas Contained: The Rise and Pacification of Palestinian Resistance (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018), 73, 76.
  86. Tamimi, Hamas, 210–11.
  87. Baconi, Hamas Contained, 80.
  88. Ibid., 80–4.
  89. Milton-­Edwards, 'Prepared for Power', 317–18.
  90. Sayigh, 'We Serve the People', 124.
  91. Muhammad, al-­Masira al-­jihadiyya, 99, 193.
  92. Shallah, Haqa'iq wa mawafiq, 50.
  93. Muhammad, al-­Masira al-­jihadiyya, 191.
  94. Ibid., 193; Shallah, Haqa'iq wa mawafiq, 57. Correct page number is 58 for second reference.
  95. See for example Beverley Milton-­Edwards, 'Hamas: Victory with Ballots and Bullets', Global Change, Peace and Security 19, no. 3 (October 2007): 301–16; Frode Løvlie, 'Explaining Hamas's Changing Electoral Strategy, 1996–2006', Government and Opposition 48, no. 4 (October 2013): 570–93; Manal A. Jamal, 'Beyond Fateh Corruption and Mass Discontent: Hamas, the Palestinian Left and the 2006 Legislative Elections', British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 40, no. 3 (July 2013): 273–94; Tavishi Bhasin and Maia Carter Hallward, 'Hamas as a Political Party: Democratization in the Palestinian Territories', in Mary Beth Altier, Susanne Martin, and Leonard B. Weinberg, eds, Violence, Elections, and Party Politics (New York: Routledge, 2014).
  96. Jihan al-­Husayni, 'Masadir qariba min 'al-­jihad al-­islami' tahmal ala qiyadat Hamas wa Fatah', al-­Hayat, August 5, 2007.
  97. Asmaa al-­Ghoul and Ibraheem Abu Mustafa, 'Islamic Jihad Takes Mediator Role between Hamas, Fatah', al-­Monitor, January 26, 2015.
  98. ''Hamas' wa 'Fatah' tuwasilan tabadul al-­ittihamat', al-­Hayat, November 15, 2013.
  99. Björn Brenner, Gaza under Hamas: From Islamic Democracy to Islamist Governance (London: I. B. Taurus, 2017), 37.
  100. Milton-­Edwards and Farrell, Hamas, 286.
  101. Abu Tayr, Sayyidi Umar, 356.
  102. Milton-­Edwards and Farrell, Hamas, 281.
  103. Quoted in Jonathan Fighel, 'The Mujaheed Sheikh – Dr. Nizar Rayyan: The Spiritual Mentor of Iz a-­Din al Qassam Brigades' (Herzliya: International Institute for Counter-­terrorism, October 2021).
  104. Trevor Mostyn, 'Nizar Rayan', Guardian, January 3, 2009.
  105. Abu Tayr, Sayyidi Umar, 362.
  106. Clyde Haberman, '12 Die as Arafat's Police Fire on Palestinian Militants', New York Times, November 19, 1994.
  107. Are Hovdenak, 'Hamas in Transition: The Failure of Sanctions', Democratization 16, no. 1 (2010): 75.
  108. See for example Mouin Rabbani, 'A Hamas Perspective on the Movement's Evolving Role: An Interview with Khalid Mishal: Part II', Journal of Palestine Studies 37, no. 4 (July 2008): 74–5; Frode Løvlie, 'The Institutional Trajectory of Hamas: From Radicalism to Pragmatism – and Back Again?' (PhD thesis, University of Bergen, 2015), 274.
  109. Nicolas Pelham, 'Hamas's Deadly "Phantom": The Man Behind the Attacks', Economist, October 20, 2023.
  110. Hovdenak, 'Hamas in Transition', 74.
  111. Are Hovdenak, Al-­Qaida: A Challenge for Hamas? (Kjeller: Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, 2009), 37–8; Løvlie, 'The Institutional Trajectory of Hamas', 286.
  112. Sayigh, 'We Serve the People', 120.
  113. Abu Yunus al-­Abbasi, 'Limadha la tatbiq Hamas al-­shari'a?', Jannat 54 (2008): 44.
  114. Gunning, Hamas in Politics, 138.
  115. Reuven Paz, 'Jihadis and Hamas', in Assaf Moghadam and Brian Fishman, eds, Self-­Inflicted Wounds: Debates and Divisions within al-­Qa'ida and Its Periphery (West Point: Combatting Terrorism Center at West Point, 2010), 183–4.
  116. Cole Bunzel, 'Gaza and Global Jihad', Foreign Affairs, 2 November 2023.
  117. Barak Mendelsohn, 'al-­Qaeda's Palestinian Problem', Survival 51, no. 4 (2009): 78.
  118. Charbel, 'Shallah: Lam yu'ayyid qatl al-­madaniyyin fi 11 Aylul'.
  119. Ghassam Charbel, 'Ziyara li-­dhakirat al-­amin al-­amm li-­harakat 'al-­jihad al-­islami fi Filastin' 4. Shallah: Talabtuhu bi-­tashkil tanzim wa hin kashaf al-­sirr baya'tuhu bay'at 'al-­jihad' al-­Shiqaqi an Hassan Nasrallah: Sayakun khumayni al-­Arab idha 'ash', al-­Hayat, January 10, 2003.
  120. Skare, A History of Palestinian Islamic Jihad, 157.
  121. Yoram Schweitzer, 'Salafi Jihadism in Gaza as Opposition to Hamas Rule', in Anat Kurz, Udi Dekel, and Benedetta Berti, eds, The Crisis of the Gaza Strip (Tel Aviv: Institute for National Security Studies, 2018), 61–2.
  122. Brenner, Gaza under Hamas, 69–70.
  123. Hovdenak, 'al-­Qaida', 24; Paz, 'Jihadis and Hamas', 194–5.
  124. Brenner, Gaza under Hamas, 75.
  125. Dag Tuastad, 'Hamas and the Clans: From Islamisation of Tribalism to Tribalization of Islamism?', Third World Thematics: A TWQ Journal 6, nos 1–3 (May 2021): 93.
  126. Paz, 'Jihadis and Hamas', 195.
  127. Brenner, Gaza under Hamas, 85.
  128. Quoted in Hovdenak, 'al-­Qaida', 29.
  129. Brenner, Gaza under Hamas, 91–3.
  130. Sayigh, 'We Serve the People', 15; Paz, 'Jihadis and Hamas', 194.
  131. Brenner, Gaza under Hamas, 72.
  132. Ibid., 71.
  133. Fighel, 'The Mujaheed Sheikh – Dr. Nizar Rayyan'.
  134. Ibid.
  135. 'Obituary: Nizar Rayan', BBC News, January 1, 2009.
  136. Sayigh, 'We Serve the People', 17.
  137. International Crisis Group, Radical Islam in Gaza (Crisis Group, March 29, 2011), 5.
  138. Brenner, Gaza under Hamas, 76.
  139. Sayigh, 'We Serve the People', 94–8.
  140. Quoted in Brenner, Gaza under Hamas, 92.
  141. Ibid., 90.
  142. 'Mumarasat Hamas fi Ghazzah hiya allati Khalaqat hadhihi al-­Jama'ah al-­takfiriyyah', al-­Shuruq, August 16, 2009.